Indian female migrants face greater barriers to post-Covid recovery than males: Evidence from a panel study

Background: India's abrupt nationwide Covid−19 lockdown internally displaced millions of migrant workers, who returned to distant rural homes. Documenting their labour market reintegration is a critical aspect of understanding the economic costs of the pandemic for India's poor. In a country marked by low and declining female labour force participation, identifying gender gaps in labour market reintegration – as a marker of both women's vulnerability at times of crisis and setbacks in women's agency – is especially important. Yet most studies of pandemic−displaced internal migrants in India are small, rely on highly selected convenience samples, and lack a gender focus.